Elementary Rules of Usage



1. Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding's.

Exceptions: the possessives of ancient proper names ending in -es and -is.



2. In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last. 

Exception: In the names of business firms the last comma is usually omitted. Following the usage of the individual firm.



3. Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas.

Comments: 

- No matter the interruption is slight or considerable, never omit one comma and leave the other.
- Dates ususally contain parenthetic words or figures.
- A name or a title in direct address is parenthetic.
- The abbreviations etc., i.e., and e.g., the abbreviations for academic degrees, and titles that follow a name are parenthetic and should be punctuated accordingly.
- No comma should separate a noun from a restrictive term of identification.
- Nonrestrictive relative clauses are parenthetic while restrictive clauses are not. The same principle of comma use applies to participial phrases and to appositives.
- When the main clause of a sentence is preceded by a phrase or a subordinate clause, use a comma to set off these elements.


4. Place a comma before a conjunction introducing an independent clause.

Comments:

- Two-part sentences of which the second member is introduced by as, for, or, nor or while likewise require a comma before the conjunction.
- If a dependent clause, or an introductory phrase requiring to be set off by a comma, precedes the second independent clause, no comma is needed after the conjunction. 
- When the subject is the same for both clauses and is expressed only once, a comma is useful if the connective is but. When the connective is and, the comma should be omitted is the relation between the two statements is close or immediate.


5. Do not join independent clauses with a comma.

Comments:

- If two or more clauses grammatically complete and not joined by a conjunction are to form a single compound sentence, the proper mark of punctuation is a semicolon.
- If the second clause is preceded by an adverb, such as accordingly, besides, then, therefore, or thus, and not by a conjunction, the semicolon is still required.
- A comma is preferable when the clauses are very short and alike in form, or when the tone of the sentence is easy and conversational.


6. Do not break sentence in two.


7. Use a colon after an independent clause to introduce a list of particulars, an appositive, an amplification, or an illustrative quotation.

Comments:
- The colon usually follows an independent clause and should not separate a verb from its complement or a preposition from its object.
- Join two indepenent clauses with a colon if the second interprets or amplifies the first.
- A colon may introduce a quotation that supports or contributes to the preceding clause.


8. Use a dash to set off an abrupt break or interruption and to announce a long appositive or summary.


9. The number of the subject determines the number of the verb.

Comments:

- Words that intervene between subject and verb do not affect the number of the verb.
- A common blunder is the use of a singular verb form in a relative clause following "one of ..." or a similar expression when the relative is the subject.
- Use a singular verb form after each, either, everyone, everybody, neither, nobody, someone.
- when none means "no one" or "not one", use the singular verb, otherwise use a plural verb.
- A compound subject formed of two or more nouns joined by and almost always requires a plural verb.
- Certain compounds ,often cliches, are so inseparable they are considered a unit and so take a singular verb, as do compound subjects qualified by each or every.
- A singular subject remains singular even if other nouns are connected to it by with, as well as, in addition to, except, together with, and no less than.
- Some nouns that appear to be plural are usually construed as singular and given a singular verb.


10. Use the proper case of pronoun

Comments:
- When who introduces a subordinate clause, its case depends on its function in that clause.
- A pronoun in a comparison is nominative if it is the subject of a stated or understood verb. 


11. A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject.



Elementary Principles of Composition

To Be Continued...